Table of Contents
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CURRICULUM VITAE.. x
ABSTRACT.. xiv
TABLE OF CONTENTS.. xvi
LIST OF FIGURES.. xxv
LIST OF TABLES.. xxxi
LIST OF TABLES.. xxxi
Chapter 1 – Like Salt or Like Gold?.. 1
1.1. Overview.... 1
1.1.1. Prehispanic Economy. 7
1.1.2. Chemical characterization work in the Andes. 12
1.2. Structure of the Dissertation... 14
1.2.1. Organization of presentation.. 14
1.2.2. Digital data availability. 14
1.2.3. Dates. 15
1.2.4. Spatial data.. 15
1.2.5. Photographs and scale. 17
1.3. Conclusion... 18
Chapter 2 – Theoretical Approaches to
Economy, Exchange, and Raw Material Sources.. 19
2.1. Introduction... 19
2.2. Anthropological approaches to economy and exchange.. 21
2.2.1. Economies. 21
2.2.2. Transfer of goods and exchange value. 28
2.2.3. Transfer of goods and socio-political complexity. 46
2.2.4. Definitions of exchange. 60
2.2.5. Exchange and social distance. 69
2.2.6. Territoriality and access to raw material sources. 76
2.2.7. Discussion.. 79
2.3. Chemical provenience and exchange.. 81
2.3.1. Quantitative approaches to regional exchange. 82
2.3.2. Other Distance Decay studies. 86
2.3.3. Site-oriented studies of exchange. 92
2.3.4. Discussion.. 98
2.4. The View from the Quarry... 100
2.4.1. The specialization and efficiency framework for quarry studies. 102
2.4.2. Analysis of a production system.. 105
2.4.3. Specialization at a Mexican Obsidian workshop.. 108
2.4.4. A contextual approach to Neolithic axe quarries in Britain.. 110
2.4.5. Discussion.. 118
Chapter 3 – The Regional Context of
Chivay Obsidian Research... 121
3.1. Andean Economy and Exchange.. 126
3.1.1. Economic organization and trade in the Andes. 128
3.1.2. Economy and exchange in mountain environments. 135
3.2. Long distance trade.. 156
3.2.1. Household-level caravans. 159
3.2.2. Incentives for early caravan formation.. 162
3.2.3. Exchange between herders and farmers. 164
3.2.4. Types of products carried by caravans. 166
3.2.5. Caravan travel distances and speeds. 168
3.2.6. Circuit mobility and role of the periphery. 172
3.2.7. Compadrazgo relationships and commerce. 175
3.2.8. Discussion.. 180
3.3. Regional patterns and major sources of obsidian... 183
3.3.1. Obsidian and larger geographical associations. 188
3.4. Chivay Obsidian Consumption Contexts.. 191
3.4.1. Asana.. 191
3.4.2. Qillqatani rock shelter. 193
3.4.3. Sumbay. 200
3.4.4. The Ilave Valley and Jiskairumoko.. 202
3.5. Andean Obsidian Distributions through Time.. 206
3.5.1. Archaic Foragers in the South-Central Andes. 211
3.5.2. Early Agropastoralist obsidian distributions. 231
3.5.3. The Late Prehispanic. 255
3.6. Obsidian Use in the South-Central Andes.. 271
3.6.1. Variability in Andean obsidian use. 272
3.6.2. Symbolic significance of obsidian.. 284
3.7. Models for the Procurement and Circulation of
Chivay Obsidian in Prehistory... 291
3.7.1. Direct acquisition Model 292
3.7.2. Multiple Reciprocal Exchanges (Down the line) Model 296
3.7.3. Independent Caravans Model 300
3.7.4. Elite-Sponsored Caravans Model 305
3.8. Summary... 307
Chapter 4 – Regional Geography and Geology
of the Upper Colca Project Area... 309
4.1. The geography of the Colca Valley study area... 310
4.1.1. Climate across the study area.. 313
4.1.2. Lower elevation biotic zones: Study Area Blocks 3 and 6.. 320
4.1.3. High Puna: Block 2 survey and adjacent Blocks 4 and 5.. 327
4.1.4. The Chivay Source: Block 1.. 331
4.2. Tectonic geology... 332
4.3. Formations in the Upper Colca Valley... 335
1. A geological descent of the upper Colca drainage. 337
4.3.1. Yura and associated sedimentary strata.. 343
4.3.2. Oligocene and Miocene lavas. 344
4.3.3. Pliocene lavas – Barroso group.. 347
4.3.4. Pleistocene – Ampato group.. 350
4.3.5. Holocene stratovolcanoes. 350
4.3.6. Glaciation.. 350
4.4. How obsidian is formed... 355
4.4.1. Chemical differentiation.. 357
4.4.2. Obsidian color. 358
4.5. Pliocene (Barroso group) obsidian in the Colca valley... 359
4.5.1. Chivay obsidian source observations. 360
4.6. Other Tertiary obsidian in the Colca valley... 366
4.6.1. Tripcevich source sampling work.. 369
4.7. Conclusion... 373
Chapter 5 – Research Methods and
Data Recording Strategies.. 375
5.1. Introduction... 375
5.1.1. Locus rather than Site-oriented survey methods. 376
5.1.2. Data recording in both categorical forms and field journals. 377
5.2. Geographical context.. 379
5.2.1. Geographical datum and regional data sets. 380
5.2.2. Regional datasets. 382
5.3. Data recording approach... 382
5.3.1. Introduction.. 382
5.3.2. Organization, sampling, and inference. 383
5.3.3. Aggregating by Sites versus Loci 385
5.3.4. Site and Loci recording structure. 386
5.3.5. The Primary Key: ArchID... 387
5.3.6. Site classification.. 389
5.3.7. Linking Field and Lab data: an example. 390
5.3.8. Theoretical relevance of the provenience system.. 391
5.4. Survey Strategy... 393
5.4.1. Goals of Survey and Testing.. 393
5.4.2. Surveys types: Prospection, Statistical, and Spatial Structure. 394
5.4.3. Surveyor interval and sampling.. 395
5.4.4. Survey design.. 396
5.4.5. Testing the effectiveness of the B3 survey strategy. 400
5.5. Mobile GIS for archeological survey... 402
5.5.1. Standard survey practice. 402
5.5.2. The contribution of mobile GIS.. 404
5.5.3. Hardware configuration.. 405
5.5.4. Defining loci and sites. 407
5.5.5. Attribute Forms. 408
5.5.6. Variability within a Locus. 410
5.5.7. Sampling High-density Loci 414
5.5.8. Collection during survey. 415
5.5.9. Other Data Types. 415
5.5.10. Processing steps with mobile GIS.. 416
5.5.11. Implications of Mobile GIS for Fieldwork.. 418
5.6. Test Excavation Methodology... 420
5.6.1. Excavation procedures. 420
5.6.2. Proveniencing of excavated materials. 421
5.6.3. Proveniencing for database management and quantitative analysis. 423
5.7. Lab analysis.. 424
5.7.1. Phase I Lab work.. 425
5.7.2. Phase II Lab work.. 426
5.8. Sampling in Upper Colca work... 431
5.8.1. Sampling during survey. 432
5.8.2. Sampling during excavation.. 432
5.8.3. Sampling during lab analysis. 433
5.9. Derivative indices.. 434
5.9.1. Lithic density raster index. 436
5.9.2. Cumulative Viewshed Analysis and Exposure Index. 439
5.9.3. Bifacial Thinning Flake index. 443
5.10. Database structure and 1:M labeling.. 445
5.10.1. The All ArchID Centroids file. 446
5.10.2. VB Script for One-to-Many labeling.. 448
5.11. Conclusion... 450
Chapter 6 – Survey Results from
Research in the Upper Colca... 451
6.1. Introduction to data presentation... 451
6.1.1. Data presentation and cartographic conventions. 453
6.2. Obsidian variability in the study area... 457
6.2.1. Material type by survey block.. 457
6.2.2. Production Indices. 472
6.2.3. Projectile Points and obsidian variability. 475
6.3. Survey Results: Archaic Foragers Period (9000–3300BCE). 481
6.3.1. Block 1 – Archaic Source and adjacent high puna.. 484
6.3.2. Block 2 – Archaic San Bartolomé. 510
6.3.3. Block 3 – Archaic Callalli and adjacent valley bottom areas. 534
6.4. Survey Results: Early Agropastoralists Period (3300BCE – AD400) 578
6.4.1. Block 1 – Source. 584
6.4.2. Block 2 – San Bartolomé. 611
6.4.3. Block 3 – Callalli 623
6.5. Survey Results: Late Prehispanic Period (AD400 - AD1532). 635
6.5.1. Block 1 – Source. 637
6.5.2. Block 2 – San Bartolomé. 651
6.5.3. Block 3 – Callalli 663
6.6. Chapter summary discussion... 677
Chapter 7 – Results and Analysis of Data
from Test Excavations.. 679
7.1. Goals of the analysis of production... 680
7.2. General Indices of Production... 685
7.3. Test excavation units.. 689
7.4. Block 1 Test Excavations at Maymeja Q02-2. 692
7.4.1. Q02-2, Test Unit 2.. 692
7.4.2. Q02-2, Test Unit 3.. 707
7.4.3. Summary Interpretation of A03-126 Workshop.. 748
7.5. Block 2 Test Excavations at Pausa A02-39. 751
7.5.1. A02-39, Test Unit 1 and 2.. 751
7.5.2. A02-39, Test Units 3 and 4.. 752
7.6. Block 3 Test Excavations at Taukamayo A02-26. 762
7.6.1. A02-26, Test Unit 1.. 762
7.6.2. Test Unit 2.. 773
7.7. Comparisons between Blocks with surface and excavated data. 774
7.7.1. Size of flaked stone artifacts. 774
7.8. Conclusion... 776
Chapter 8 – Major Findings from
the Upper Colca Project.. 778
8.1. Introduction... 778
8.2. Review of major findings.. 778
8.2.1. Archaic Foragers (10,000 – 3300 BCE). 780
8.2.2. Early Agropastoralist 782
8.2.3. Late Prehispanic. 786
8.2.4. Discussion.. 790
8.3. Production and interaction... 790
8.3.1. Lithic raw material use in the vicinity of the Chivay source. 790
8.3.2. Quarrying for non-local consumption.. 792
8.3.3. Site visibility at Maymeja and warfare in the Colca area.. 794
8.3.4. Quarry pit and associated workshop activities. 797
8.3.5. Pottery and lithic production.. 805
8.3.6. Projectile Points. 806
8.3.7. Regional caravans and local interaction.. 809
8.3.8. Models of regional obsidian circulation.. 815
8.4. Theoretical implications from obsidian procurement evidence 826
8.4.1. Herder status and herd size. 827
8.4.2. The changing scale of regular interaction.. 828
8.4.3. Aggrandizing behavior. 830
8.5. Future research... 833
8.5.1. Other Andean sources. 833
8.5.2. Technological improvements. 834
8.6. Conclusion... 835
Appendix A – Arch ID and Lot ID Registry.. 837
A.1. All Arch ID (Centroids) values.. 837
A.2. Lot ID Registry... 865
Appendix B – Selected Obsidian Sources
in Southern Peru... 870
B.1. Aconcagua Obsidian Source.. 870
B.2. Alca Obsidian Source.. 870
B.3. Chivay Obsidian Source.. 871
B.4. Uyo Uyo Obsidian Source.. 874
Appendix C – Obsidian Artifact Examples
and Representations from the Andes.. 875
References Cited –.. 883